IN 1869 native war broke out again, this time with more serious consequence, for it led to the direct intervention of foreigners in the native government of the group.

We have already seen in these pages that warfare had long been a matter of inherited privilege among the Samoans, and a recognised occupation of their young men. Of these earlier wars we know little with definiteness, but such legends as have survived indicate that for centuries some fighting could generally be found in the group for those so minded, either in local hostilities or in warfare with Fiji or Tonga. But, from 1829 on, the causes of wars are matters of history. We shall see how, these at first concerned the natives only, and, later, drew into partisanship certain white residents of the group and from them their respective nationalities - British, American or Germans.

The whole of the native wars of which we have knowledge, and there were seven of them prior to their coding after seventy years with the annexations of the group to Germany and America in 1900, arose from disputed successions to title. Samoa is a land of many ranks and high-sounding names, mainly hereditary, but subject to the restrictions imposed by the custom of Samoan communism. A single example will suffice to illustrate the circumscribed nature of a chieftain's office. A name carries with it the title to land of a certain compass. No important change in methods of cultivation can be made without consultation of the heads, no alienation of any part without agreement of the members, of the families interested. Breach of the conditions which the native mind understands to determine the office might even lead to the dismissal of the chief and the election of a successor. To-day every chief, however high, holds subject to the Government, which decides all disputes, but prior to annexation there was no real central authority and the only final arbitramant was war. The reader will understand that in seeking the causes of native warfare, reference is made to conditions which obtained prior to the 1900 annexations, since when of course there have been no native wars.

There is no royal house in Samoa. There are five great names, which carry allegiance from the inhabitants of the five political districts comprising the whole group, and which, though hereditary, require confirmation from those districts, either by bestowal or by reason of conquest. The district of Atua, the eastern division of Upolu, to which are politically attached Tutuila and possibly Manu'a, is represented by the Tui-Atua; the district of Tuamasaga, the central division of Upolu, carries two names. the Tamasoalii and the Gatoa’itele; the district of Aana, in the western division of Upolu is represented by the Tui-Aana; and the people of the whole of Savii, with Manono and Apolima, form the constituency of the fifth, the Pule-o-Salafai. Now it might happen that more than one of these great names became united in one person; if all five so united the chief possessing them became over-lord or king, Tupu-o-Samoa. This does not seem to have been rare in the early history of Samoa, despite the fact that the political districts were jealous of each other's power.

The great war, in the course of which John Willims saw the desolation of Aana in 1830, was the result of the tyranny of a king, a priest of one of the war-gods of Manono who had assumed the vacant office of king and even contrived to have himself worshipped as a god. His cruel oppressions caused the people of Aana, who had first conferred their title upon him, to rise and kill him. Manono and Savaii thereupon united to avenge the murder and were joined by Tuamasaga and Atua. Aana was defeated, and almost depopulated. Malietoa, a high chief living in Savaii, was then proclaimed king, the first as far as is known, of his family to acquire or claim the dignity. This was Malietoa Vaiinupo, the same Malietoa who in 1830 welcomed John Williams, and Charles Barf to Savaii and who later was christened as David Malietoa Tavita. He held the office for some ten years and died in 1841. Before his death he expressed the wish that as he had been the fist of his family to obtain the title of kin he should be the last to hold it, and he even set aside custom to the extent of endeavouring to apportion his various titles among those whom he wished to make his successors.

From this succession arose all the subsequent native conflicts, and the foreign influence brought to bear on the native disputes helped a peaceful issue but little. Tavita, in a manner of speaking, had his wish, for he was the last king of Samoa free from outside interference.

From 1841 to 1868 them was a long interregnum. The old quarrel between Aana and Manono continued, and, as we have seen, native war broke out in 1848, lasting some seven years. The cause of the war was Manono's jealousy of the rising prosperity and power of Aana. A chief of Manono complained that he had been slighted when visiting Aana; it was resolved to re-establish the supremacy. In order to avoid the danger of a sudden attack from the sea, for which Manono was known to be preparing, the people of Aana withdrew to the friendly district of Atua. Aana was again devastated and plantations and houses destroyed. Then an expedition by Manono, Savaii and Tuamasaga against Atua, was undertaken and was defeated with heavy loss. A second raid was more successful but gave no permanent advantage. However, by the defection to Manono of two chieftains of the opposite parties, the supremacy was deemed to have been duly restored, and, the new musket warfare not being popular among the warriors of Savaii, the war drew to an end.

In 1860, Moli. elder son of Tavita and his natural successor, died, and the chiefs upon whom the choice of a successor depended were divided between Pe'a, son of Tavita's half-brother, and Laupepa, Moli's son. Laupepa being a youth, Pe'a was for a time permitted to assume control, both being allowed to use the name Malietoa and Pe'a taking the name of Malietoa Talavou.

Under this arrangement Samoa was governed until 1867. Then quarrels again broke out. Laupepa was proclaimed by Tuamasaga the one Malietoa and king. He took station at the east of Apia, controlling the town. Pe'a with his adherents then occupied Mulinu'u, the peninsula, easily defended from land attacks, which is situate at the western end of Apia Bay, and drew his support from the westward districts. For the best part of two years some thousands of men were under arms, and the rival forces bartered what they had to get food for their families and arms for themselves. Valuable land commenced to pass from native possession to the hands of the whites. Much chiefly discussion took place, but to no avail. Early in 1869 the rival forces moved close to each other, each making breastworks, and on the night of Good Friday of that year a battle broke out which roared round Apia for three days and nights. It should be said that the natives took every precaution to prevent harm happening to the white residents. A street fight would even stop to allow them to pass. After some seventy odd hours of fighting Laupepa gave ground, and retiring across the island entrenched at Safata, The struggle continued without definite result until August of 1870. In that month the British Consul, acting with missionaries of the London and Wesleyan missions, met the chiefs of both parties and arranged a peace which however was only partially successful, hostilities going on until May 1873, when, a British and an American warship having arrived, a treaty of peace was signed between the opposing forces which gave Laupepa control.

The peace was merely a temporary one. Even, at this stage native government under white approval was showing itself to be impossible. Throughout the 'seventies faction was rife among the natives, as represented by their chiefs, the two principal parties being the Taimua, or Chiefs' Council, who held the leading power and therefore might be termed the Government, and the Puletua, or Opposition.

In 1872 the United States ship Narragansett. Commander Richard W. Meade, visited Pago Pago in the island of Tutuila and an agreement was concluded whereby Mauga, high chief of Tutuila, expressed a desire for the friendly protection of the United States, granting in return the exclusive privilege of establishing a naval station in Pago Pago harbour. The agreement was communicated to the United States Government, but, inasmuch as it was contrary to the foreign policy of that country, no action was taken on it.

In 1873 the United States Department of State sent one Colonel A. B. Steinberger as a special agent to report upon the group. The report was submitted in the latter part of 1873 and included letters from chiefs praying for the help of the President in their behalf. In 1875 Steinberger was again sent out, in U.S.S. Tuscarora, bearing a communication from the United States Government and presents, for the chiefs. His official relations with the United States became discontinued when the letter and presents were delivered. It was proposed that Steinberger should assisst the Samoans towards good and stable government. The documents he brought are interesting. The first was a letter from Captain Henry Erbin, commanding U.S.S. Tuscarora, to the Taimua, telling them that Steinberger would remain among them to assist in organising their government as an independent nationality. Then followed a similar letter from Steinberger himself to the effect that he was among the chiefs, in accordance with the petitions sent during the previous four years, to help the Samoans to their independence. A draft "Declaration of Rights," drawn up in the name of the people of Samoa, and a "Constitution," consisting of thirty-two sections, providing for a limited monarchy with two Houses of Parliament and outlining the relations of the People, white and brown, to the new government, formed the bulwark of the liberties of the future nation.

Steinberger became Premier, virtual Dictator, but his empire was short. With the natives he succeeded, but he fell foul of the consuls, and, on the representation of the American Consul, deported to Fiji in the British gunboat Barracouta, Captain Stevens commanding. It is beyond doubt that Steinberger was guilty of irregular practices. He had made an arrangement with Weber whereby he was to further the business of Godeffroy & Son in consideration of payments by way of commission. He made laws, but apparently he did not always and everywhere observe them. He also, there is good authority for saying, unwarrantedly promised the Samoans the protection of the States. Captain Stevens was reprimanded in Fiji for his action, and Steinberger returning to the States commenced a suit for damages against the British Government which was settled by compromise. The American Consul at Apia was recalled. But Steinberger did not return to Samoa, and his government, the one and only Samoan experiment of native administration under the acknowledged direction of private white control, collapsed on his deportation. The venture can scarcely be said to have been a credit to anyone, and it led directly to an incident in which a number of Englishmen lost their lives. On 13th March 1876 the zealous Captain Stevens took Laupepa, with a guard of honour from the ship, to Mulinu'u with the object of inducing the chiefs there, assembled to accept Laupepa as king. The step showed a grave misunderstanding of the conditions under which the kingly office was granted; the chiefs resenting such a proposal under what appeared to them a puny show of force fired upon the guard, and, a minature battle resulting, several sailors were killed and a number wounded, as well as toll being taken from the Samoans. Stevens was compelled to resign his commission, and, it is believed, eventually died in America a broken man. Samoa was acquiring a reputation for trouble.

It is illustrative of the then lack of authority in Apia that the only case of lynching known in the history of the group happened about this time. A man of mixed blood named Cochrane was hung for a bar-room murder by a posse of Apia residents in what is now the business centre of the capital. Cochrane was about to be shipped to California, ostensibly for trial, but it seemed unlikely that he would in that event meet with the only fitting punishment.

In 1877 the Puletua - the Native Opposition under Malieroa Laupepa - made two attempts to overcome the government of the Taimua. Malietoa was both times beaten. “Had it not," says Trood, "been for the intervention of H.B.M. Consul Liardet, to whose house and grounds the beaten Puletua party fled for shelter, they would all have been massacred by their opponents.” That same year a deputation of the Taimua proceeded to Fiji and made an unsuccessful application for annexation to Great Britain. The Taimua, then sent one Mamea, a chief of fine presence and a fluent speaker of English, as their ambassador to the United States with a view to his securing a treaty of protection from the government of that country. In this he was not successful, but early in 1878 he concluded a treaty of friendship and commerce at Washington, which gave to America the privilege of entering and using the port of Pago Pago and establishing a naval and coaling station there, and promised the good offices of America in the event of differences between Samoa and any government at peace with the United States. The treaty was ratified the same year by the United States, and, on behalf of Samoa, it is understood by Mamea himself in America. As a treaty it is extraordinary for two reasons. It was Samoa's first treaty; it was also America's first departure into the realms of such foreign affairs as might lead to complications with other governments.

In 1879 there followed similar treaties between Germany and Samoa, and between England and Samoa, whereby Germany received the right to establish a coaling station at the harbour of Saluafata, and England a similar right in a place to he later determined.

Towards the end of 1879 a second politician arrived in Samoa from the States in the person of a certain General Bartlett. He joined the Tumua, a traditional league of chiefs then opposing Malietoa Talavou. “Shortly after his arrival” says Trood "Consul Theodor Weber and Captain Deinhardt, H.I.M.S. Bismarck, went in December 1879 with a body of armed men to Faleata where the Tumua were encamped, disarmed them, and then induced them to recognise Talavou as their king; a very dangerous expedition but successful; force here accomplishing what persuasion failed to do in the case of the Barracouta tragedy. A large barque having been chartered, the Tumua troops (from Savaii) were at once put on board of her and she was towed to Savaii by one of the German ships-of-war lying here at the time." The incident bore the stamp not only of Germany but of the successful Weber. A government was again formed, this time by the advice of the three Consuls. Talavou became king, Laupepa vice-king, and the high chief Mataafa, who held the title Tui-Atua and of whom much must hereafter be said, Premier. Talavou died in 1880, Laupepa succeeding to the kingship.

It will be seen from the foregoing that foreign influences were already enveloping the little group. In the 'seventies American influence predominated. We shall see in the next chapter in what manner Germany sought to strengthen her influence during the succeeding decade. One direct alienation from native control must however have notice here. In August 1879 Sir Arthur Gordon, afterwards Lord Stanmore, then High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, visited Samoa as British Commissioner for the negotiation of the treaty regarding coaling-station rights. He recommended, and indeed effected, the creation in the Apia district of a municipality, to be neutral ground as far as native wan were concerned. The idea was supported by the German Consul and a Convention was accordingly agreed to by the native government and the Consuls of England and Germany. The American Consul also provisionally agreed, but his action remained unconfirmed by the Senate. Under the Convention the government of Samoa surrendered jurisdiction over the town, harbour and neighbourhood of Apia, the control of this area being vested in a municipal board consisting of the three Consuls and their three several nominees. Regulations were empowered, as also the levying of rates and issue of licenses to cover the cost of municipal government and public works. The appointment of a magistrate and the definition of his jurisdiction were provided. One of the first regulations forbade the supply of liquor to natives. The sale of firearms to natives was also prohibited. Neither regulation, be it said, could be enforced absolutely, and stories of the evasions are amusing. But the establishment of the municipality was a boon to the whites and natives alike. The punishment of offenders against the regulations, many of which are still in force, went far to remove the unfairness, to say nothing of the stigma, of the lawlessness which previously had always been Apia's. There were protests and opposition but the regulations held and the law at last went in the port.